Article
Bettina Rottweiler, Paul Gill
Conspiratorial thinking and far-right extremist attitudes
Article |
5 min read
Article
Using Fuzzy Set Qualitative Comparative Analysis to Examine Heterogeneity in Conspiracy Believers
Article |
4 min read
Article
Ricky Green, Imane Khaouja, Daniel Toribio-Flórez, Karen Douglas
Conspiracy Theories: Their Propagation and Links to Political Violence
Article |
4 min read
Article
Tom Buchanan, Rotem Perach, Deborah Husbands
Why do people share false political information online?
Article |
4 min read
Article
Mujammil Hussain, Jordan Nunan
Understanding Islam and Rapport Building with Muslims
Article |
4 min read
Report
Alexandra Phelan, Jessica White, Claudia Wallner, James Paterson
Misogyny, Hostile Beliefs and the Transmission of Extremism: A Comparison of the Far-Right in the UK and Australia
Report |
2 min read
Report
Lewys Brace
Incel and the Incelosphere: An overview of current research and understanding
Report |
2 min read
Article
Lewys Brace
The ‘incelosphere’ and incel violence: A worsening problem?
Article |
7 min read
Article
Susan Steen
A Communication Perspective on Resilience
Article |
5 min read
Article
Lewys Brace
A data-driven analysis of incelosphere engagement by UK-based users
Article |
5 min read
Policy brief
Lewys Brace
How worried should we be about incel-related violence?
Policy brief |
3 min read
Article
Pete Simi, Steven Windisch
Trauma, Extremism and Criminology
Article |
4 min read
Report
Ben Lee
Lethal Subcultures
Report |
3 min read
Guide
Ben Lee
Siege Culture and Accelerationism in the UK
Guide |
7 min read
Article
Shanon Shah
How (Not) To Make A Violent Copycat: Lessons From ‘Dark Fandoms’
Article |
4 min read
Article
Carl Miller
China’s Digital Diplomacy
Article |
10 min read
Article
Simon Copeland
Islamic State, Filters, and Photoshop
Article |
4 min read
Article
Lorraine Bowman Grieve
COVID-19 Conspiracy In Ireland And The Far-Right Nexus
Article |
3 min read
Article
Stephan Lewandowsky, Muhsin Yesilada
The “Infodemic”, Inoculation, And Insurrections
Article |
4 min read
Article
Michele Grossman
How Has COVID-19 Changed The Violent Extremist Landscape?
Article |
4 min read
Article
Lewys Brace
A Short Introduction To The Involuntary Celibate Sub-Culture
Article |
10 min read
Report
John F. Morrison, Andrew Silke, Heidi Maiberg, Chloe Slay, Rebecca Stewart
A Systematic Review Of Post-2017 Research On Disengagement And Deradicalisation
Report |
6 min read
Article
Bettina Rottweiler, Paul Gill
Risk Factors for Violent Extremist Beliefs and Parallel Problem Areas
Article |
3 min read
Report
James Lewis, Sarah Marsden
Countering Violent Extremism Interventions: Contemporary Research
Report |
7 min read
Article
The Transnational Extreme-Right: Past, Present, and Future
Article |
1 min read
Report
Nigel Copsey, Samuel Merrill
Understanding 21st-Century Militant Anti-Fascism
Report |
4 min read
Article
Ben Lee
Think Global, Act Local: Reconfiguring Siege Culture
Article |
5 min read
Report
Florence Keen, Blyth Crawford, Guillermo Suarez-Tangil
Memetic Irony and the Promotion of Violence within Chan Cultures
Report |
2 min read
Guide
Ben Lee, Kim Knott
How and Why Ideologies are Shared and Learned
Guide |
15 min read
Article
Florence Keen
After 8chan
Article |
6 min read
Report
Sarah Marsden, Simon Copeland
Right-Wing Terrorism: Pathways and Protective Factors
Report |
4 min read
Guide
Neil Ferguson, James McAuley
The Violent Extremist Lifecycle: 12 Lessons from Northern Ireland
Guide |
5 min read
Article
Ben Lee
Blind Networks in the Extreme-Right
Article |
4 min read
Article
Ben Lee
A Short Guide to Narratives of the Far-Right
Article |
3 min read
Report
Kim Knott, Ben Lee
Ideological Transmission: Political and Religious Organisations
Report |
10 min read
Article
Samantha McGarry
The Far Right and Reciprocal Radicalisation
Article |
4 min read
Article
Robert Cialdini, Steve Martin
The Power of Persuasion and Pre-Suasion to Produce Change
Article |
5 min read
Article
Suzanne Newcombe
Disengagement: Lessons from Cults and Sectarian Groups
Article |
4 min read
Article
David Omand
Intelligence ethics: not an oxymoron
Article |
5 min read
Report
Kim Knott
Muslims and Islam in the UK
Report |
15 min read
Guide
Kim Knott
British Muslims: Gender and generations
Guide |
2 min read
Guide
Kim Knott
British Muslims: Mosques
Guide |
1 min read
Guide
Kim Knott
British Muslims: Families
Guide |
2 min read
Guide
Kim Knott
British Muslims: Demography and communities
Guide |
2 min read
Guide
Kim Knott
British Muslims: Charities and organisations
Guide |
2 min read
Guide
Kim Knott
British Muslims: A history
Guide |
1 min read
Guide
Kim Knott
British Muslims: Sectarian Movements
Guide |
2 min read
Guide
Jasjit Singh
Sikh Activism in Britain: Narratives and Issues
Guide |
2 min read
Article
Neil Ferguson
Understanding Engagement in Violent Extremism in Northern Ireland
Article |
3 min read
Poster
Kim Knott
Mind Map: Ideological Transmission
Poster |
3 min read
Report
Kim Knott, Ben Lee
Ideological Transmission: Peers, education, and prisons
Report |
7 min read
Article
Cerwyn Moore, Mark Youngman
New report on Russian-speaking Foreign Fighters
Article |
2 min read
Report
Jasjit Singh
The idea, context, framing, and realities of ‘Sikh radicalisation’ in Britain
Report |
6 min read
Article
Jasjit Singh
Religious transmission among young adults in the digital age
Article |
4 min read
Report
Simon Copeland, Elizabeth Morrow, Cerwyn Moore
After Islamic State: Workshop Report 2
Report |
1 min read
Article
Mark Youngman
Learning from ideological variance and change
Article |
3 min read
Article
Ben Lee
Understanding the far-right landscape
Article |
2 min read
Guide
Ben Lee
Understanding the Far-Right Landscape
Guide |
1 min read
Article
Mark Youngman
Lessons from the decline of the North Caucasus insurgency
Article |
4 min read
Report
Simon Copeland, Elizabeth Morrow, Cerwyn Moore
After Islamic State: Workshop 1
Report |
1 min read
Article
George Joffé
Regional Guide: Tunisia
Article |
3 min read
Article
Wolfram Lacher
Regional Guide: Libya
Article |
3 min read
Article
Michael Axworthy
Regional Guide: Iran
Article |
3 min read
Article
Joas Wagemakers
Regional Guide: Jordan
Article |
3 min read
Article
Elisabeth Kendall
Regional Guide: Yemen
Article |
4 min read
Article
Iain Edgar
After Islamic State: the place of night dream inspiration and propaganda
Article |
2 min read
Article
Kim Knott, Matthew Francis
Are converts to Islam more likely to become extremists?
Article |
5 min read
Report
Kim Knott, Ben Lee
Ideological Transmission: Families
Report |
5 min read
Article
Kim Knott, Ben Lee
How does the family pass on religion?
Article |
3 min read
Article
Amanda van Eck Duymaer van Twist
How beliefs may come and go: a brief overview of a ‘cult career’
Article |
3 min read
Article
Sarah Marsden
From ideological material to targeting choice in leaderless jihadist
Article |
3 min read
Article
Aristotle Kallis
‘Reverse waves’: how radical ideas spread and take hold
Article |
4 min read
Article
Jonathan Scourfield
Learning to be a Muslim
Article |
3 min read
Article
John F. Morrison
Transmitting Legitimacy and Victimhood: Violent Dissident Irish Republicanism
Article |
3 min read
Article
Kim Knott
Why transmission?
Article |
3 min read
Guide
Kim Knott
Islam: Conversion
Guide |
2 min read
Article
Ben Lee
Understanding the counter-jihad
Article |
2 min read
Guide
Ben Lee
The counter jihad movement
Guide |
1 min read
Article
Elizabeth Morrow
Loyal footsoldiers: The attractions of EDL activism
Article |
5 min read
Article
Emma Barrett
The role of trust in deciding which terrorist faction to join
Article |
2 min read
Article
Kim Knott
What are the Five Pillars of Islam?
Article |
3 min read
Guide
Kim Knott
Islam: The Five Pillars
Guide |
1 min read
Kim Knott, Matthew Francis
What’s the difference between Sunni and Shi’a Muslims?
3 min read
Guide
Kim Knott
Sunni and Shi‘a Islam: Differences and relationships
Guide |
1 min read
Article
Ben Lee
One peaceful march doesn't change Pegida's disturbing ideology
Article |
3 min read
A Diachronic Cross-Platforms Analysis of Violent Extremist Language in the Incel Online Ecosystem

The emergence and growth of incel subculture online has triggered a considerable body of research to date, most of which analyzing its worldview or mapping its position and connections within the broader manosphere. While this research has considerably enhanced our understanding of the incel phenomenon, it tends to offer a somewhat static, one-dimensional portrayal of what is—like all online subcultures and communities—a highly dynamic and multi-layered environment. Consequently, we lack sufficiently nuanced answers to what is arguably a critical question for law enforcement and academics alike: is this a violent extremist ideology? Using a uniquely extensive corpus covering a range of online spaces constitutive of the incelosphere spanning several years, we analyze the evolution of incel language across both time and platforms. Specifically, we test whether this language has grown more extreme over time as online spaces shutdown and others emerged. Our findings demonstrate that, while levels of violent extremist language do vary across the incelosphere, they have steadily increased in the main online spaces over the past 6 years. Further, we demonstrate that, while activity on these online spaces is responsive to offline events, the impact of these on violent extremist ideation is not uniform.

(From the Journal abstract)


Baele, S., Brace, L., & Ging, D. (2023) A Diachronic Cross-Platforms Analysis of Violent Extremist Language in the Incel Online Ecosystem, Terrorism and Political Violence, https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2022.2161373

Authors: Lewys Brace, Stephane Baele
https://doi.org/10.1080/21567689.2020.1732938
Fuzzy constructs in technology usage scales

The mass adoption of digital technologies raises questions about how they impact people and society. Associations between technology use and negative correlates (e.g., depression and anxiety) remain common. However, pre-registered studies have failed to replicate these findings. Regardless of direction, many designs rely on psychometric scales that claim to define and quantify a construct associated with technology engagement. These often suggest clinical manifestations present as disorders or addictions. Given their importance for research integrity, we consider what these scales might be measuring. Across three studies, we observe that many psychometric scales align with a single, identical construct despite claims they capture something unique. We conclude that many technology measures appear to measure a similar, poorly defined construct that sometimes overlaps with pre-existing measures of well-being. Social scientists should critically consider how they proceed methodologically and conceptually when developing psychometric scales in this domain to ensure research findings sit on solid foundations.


Brittany I. Davidson, Heather Shaw, David A. Ellis, (2022) Fuzzy constructs in technology usage scales, Computers in Human Behavior, Volume 133,

Authors: Brittany Davidson, Heather Shaw, David Ellis
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107206
Narratives in Action: Modelling the Types and Drivers of Sikh Activism in Diaspora

Using data gathered for an investigation of “Sikh radicalisation in Britain”, in this article I develop a typology of different types of activism among Sikhs in diaspora based on an analysis of historic and contemporary media sources (newspapers, radio, television, online), academic literature, ethnographic fieldwork and a series of semi-structured interviews with self-identifying Sikh activists. I assess the reasons behind a variety of different incidents involving Sikh activists, how Sikh activists view the drivers of their activism and to what extent this activism can be regarded as being “religiously motivated”. I critique existing typologies of “religious activism” by developing a typology of Sikh activism which challenges the distinction often made between “religious” and “political” action. I argue that “religiously motivated actions” must be understood in conjunction with narratives, incidents and issues specific to particular religious traditions and that generic motivations for these actions cannot be applied across all religious traditions.

(From the journal abstract)


Singh, J. (2020b). Narratives in Action: Modelling the Types and Drivers of Sikh Activism in Diaspora. Religions, 11(10), 539.

Author: Jasjit Singh
https://doi.org/10.3390/rel11100539
Radicalization: Trajectories in Research, Policy and Practice

This focus section provides welcome evidence of the strength of research and practice on radicalization in Germany and reflects the dynamics of debates within international policy and scholarship. The papers focus on a range of areas of research on radicalization and violent extremism covering micro-, meso- and macro-level processes alongside methods for countering and preventing violent extremism. Although the papers clearly articulate the challenges associated with carrying out research in this field, they also demonstrate the increasing scope of scholarship that is helping to explain, interpret and respond to violent extremism. By examining the wide-ranging influences on radicalization, this focus section extends an invitation to both broaden and deepen scholarship in the field: broadening research to develop more interdisciplinary, integrative frameworks to help interpret radicalization processes, and deepening it by interrogating and test-ing existing models and frameworks to develop more robust explanations of the pathways into and out of violence. This effort will be enhanced by greater use of theory from comparable areas of scholarship and by sustaining a research culture that nurtures rigorous, innovative methodologies able to capture the com-plexities of violent extremism. The papers in the focussection demonstrate that the field is in robust shapeand sets the stage for further research on radicaliza-tion and violent extremism.

(From the journal abstract)


Kim Knott & Benjamin Lee, 2020. Ideological Transmission in Extremist Contexts: Towards a Framework of How Ideas Are Shared. Politics, Religion & Ideology.

Author: Sarah Marsden
https://doi.org/10.4119/ijcv-3811
Fascist aspirants: Fascist Forge and ideological learning in the extreme-right online milieu

Learning in extremist settings is often treated as operational, with little regard to how aspiring participants in extremist settings engage with complex and abstract ideological material. This paper examines learning in the context of the amorphous network of digital channels that compose the extreme-right online milieu. Through an in-depth qualitative analysis, we explore how well the prevailing model of extremist ideological learning (in ‘communities of practice’) accounts for the behaviour of aspiring participants of Fascist Forge, a now-defunct extreme-right web forum. The findings suggest that some of the social aspects of communities of practice have been replicated in the online setting of Fascist Forge. However, for a combination of technical and ideological reasons, the more directed and nurturing aspects of learning have not. Several issues are raised about the role of ideological learning in online communities, notably the open accessibility of extremist material, the lack of ideological control leading to potential mutation and innovation by self-learners, and the role of digital learning in the preparation, shaping and recruitment of individuals for real world organising and activism.

(From the journal abstract)


Lee, B., & Knott, K. (2021). Fascist aspirants: Fascist Forge and ideological learning in the extreme-right online milieu. Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression, 1–25.

Authors: Ben Lee, Kim Knott
https://doi.org/10.1080/19434472.2020.1850842
Social movements, structural violence, and conflict transformation in Northern Ireland: The role of loyalist paramilitaries

This article analyzes how social movements and collective actors can affect political and social transformation in a structurally violent society using the case study of Northern Ireland. We focus, in particular, on the crucial role played by collective actors within the loyalist community (those who want to maintain Northern Ireland’s place in the United Kingdom) in bringing about social and political transformation in a society blighted by direct, cultural, and structural violence both during the conflict and subsequent peace process. Drawing on data obtained through in-depth interviews with loyalist activists (including former paramilitaries), the article demonstrates the role and impact of loyalists and loyalism in Northern Ireland’s transition. We identify 5 conflict transformation challenges addressed by loyalist actors in a structurally violent society: de-mythologizing the conflict; stopping direct violence; resisting pressure to maintain the use of violence; development of robust activist identity; and the measurement of progress through reference to the parallel conflict transformation journey of their former republican enemies. The Northern Ireland case demonstrates the necessity for holistic conflict transformation strategies that attempt to stop not only direct attacks but also the cultural and structural violence that underpins and legitimize them. In so doing, the article contributes to a broader understanding of how and why paramilitary campaigns are brought to an end.

(From the journal abstract)


Ferguson, N., McDaid, S., & McAuley, J. W. (2018). Social movements, structural violence, and conflict transformation in Northern Ireland: The role of loyalist paramilitaries. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 24(1), 19–26.

Authors: Neil Ferguson, James McAuley
https://doi.org/10.1037/pac0000274
Staying Engaged in Terrorism: Narrative Accounts of Sustaining Participation in Violent Extremism

Research exploring radicalization pathways and how and why people become involved in terrorism has expanded since the 9/11 attacks. Likewise, over the last decade research exploring de-radicalization and desistence from terrorism has grown and expanded in an attempt to promote exit from extremist or terror groups. However, research studies on how individuals sustain engagement in terrorism and their involvement with extremist organizations, often in the face of great adversity, are absent from the body of research. To address this scarcity of research this study analyzed accounts of engagement in violent extremism produced by Northern Irish loyalist and republican paramilitaries in order to explore how their paramilitary lifestyle, perpetration of acts of political violence and the pressure from countering threats posed by rival groups, and the State security forces impacted on them. The analysis utilized a hybrid of thematic analysis and interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA). The themes raised through the analysis reflected the psychological, social and economic hardship associated with this lifestyle. The narrative accounts also illustrated psychological changes associated to engagement in violence and from insulation within tightly knit extremist groups. As most of the participants faced incarceration during their paramilitary careers, themes also reflected on the impact imprisonment had on them. The themes explored factors that sustained their involvement, including the role of identity development and identity fusion in sustaining their extremism, the impact of insulated group membership, feelings of efficacy, dehumanization processes, community support, and beliefs in the utility of violence.

(From the journal abstract)


Ferguson, N., & McAuley, J. W. (2020b). Staying Engaged in Terrorism: Narrative Accounts of Sustaining Participation in Violent Extremism. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1338.

Authors: Neil Ferguson, James McAuley
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01338
Prophets and Loss: How “Soft Facts” on Social Media Influenced the Brexit Campaign and Social Reactions to the Murder of Jo Cox MP

This article examines “soft facts” about security issues in the 2016 Brexit referendum campaign. Soft facts arise when information provenance is uncertain, and are forms of malleable and contingent knowledge, such as rumors, conspiracy theories, and propaganda. There is a growing appreciation that digital communications environments are especially conducive to the dissemination of these kinds of information. Informed by empirical data comprising forty-five thousand nine hundred and fifty-seven data points collected by monitoring social media before and after the UK Brexit referendum campaign (June 16–October 12, 2016), the analysis examines how and why a series of soft facts concerning Brexit were mobilized. By developing the concept of “digital prophecy,” the article explores how influence is exerted by online prophets who were connecting current events to past grievances, to advance negative predictions about the future. This starts to capture the tradecraft of digital influencing, in ways that move beyond the structural topologies of communication networks. In policy terms, the analysis reminds us of the need to attend not just to how influence is achieved through fake news (e.g., using social media bots to amplify a message), but also why influence is sought in the first place.

(From the journal abstract)


Dobreva, D., Grinnell, D., & Innes, M. (2020). Prophets and Loss: How “Soft Facts” on Social Media Influenced the Brexit Campaign and Social Reactions to the Murder of Jo Cox MP. Policy & Internet, 12(2), 144–164.

Authors: Diyana Dobreva, Daniel Grinnell, Martin Innes
https://doi.org/10.1002/poi3.203
The ‘tarrant effect’: What impact did far-right attacks have on the 8chan forum?

This paper analyses the impact of a series of mass shootings committed in 2018–2019 by right-wing extremists on 8chan/pol, a prominent far-right online forum. Using computational methods, it offers a detailed examination of how attacks trigger shifts in both forum activity and content. We find that while each shooting is discussed by forum participants, their respective impact varies considerably. We highlight, in particular, a ‘Tarrant effect’: the considerable effect Brenton Tarrant’s attack of two mosques in Christchurch, New Zealand, had on the forum. Considering the rise in far-right terrorism and the growing and diversifying online far-right ecosystem, such interactive offline-online effects warrant the attention of scholars and security professionals.

(From the journal abstract)


[SB1] 

Baele, S. J., Brace, L., & Coan, T. G. (2020). The ‘tarrant effect’: What impact did far-right attacks have on the 8chan forum? Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression, 1–23. [SB2] .

 

 

Authors: Stephane Baele, Lewys Brace, Travis Coan
https://doi.org/10.1080/19434472.2020.1862274
Lethal Images: Analyzing Extremist Visual Propaganda from ISIS and Beyond

Violent extremist groups regularly use pictures in their propaganda. This practice, however, remains insufficiently understood. Conceptualizing visual images as amplifiers of narratives and emotions, the present article offers an original theoretical framework and measurement method for examining the synchronic and diachronic study of the manipulative use of images by violent extremist groups. We illustrate this framework and method with a systematic analysis of the 2,058 pictures contained in the Islamic State's propaganda magazines targeting Western audiences, exposing the “visual style” of the group, and highlighting the trends and shifts in the evolution of this style following developments on the ground.

(From the journal abstract)


[SB1] Baele, S. J., Boyd, K. A., & Coan, T. G. (2020). Lethal Images: Analyzing Extremist Visual Propaganda from ISIS and Beyond. Journal of Global Security Studies, 5(4), 634–657.

 

Authors: Stephane Baele, Katharine Boyd, Travis Coan
https://doi.org/10.1093/jogss/ogz058
Staying Engaged in Terrorism: Narrative Accounts of Sustaining Participation in Violent Extremism

Research exploring radicalization pathways and how and why people become involved in terrorism has expanded since the 9/11 attacks. Likewise, over the last decade research exploring de-radicalization and desistence from terrorism has grown and expanded in an attempt to promote exit from extremist or terror groups.

However, research studies on how individuals sustain engagement in terrorism and their involvement with extremist organizations, often in the face of great adversity, are absent from the body of research.

To address this scarcity of research this study analyzed accounts of engagement in violent extremism produced by Northern Irish loyalist and republican paramilitaries in order to explore how their paramilitary lifestyle, perpetration of acts of political violence and the pressure from countering threats posed by rival groups, and the State security forces impacted on them.

The analysis utilized a hybrid of thematic analysis and interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA). The themes raised through the analysis reflected the psychological, social and economic hardship associated with this lifestyle. The narrative accounts also illustrated psychological changes associated to engagement in violence and from insulation within tightly knit extremist groups.

As most of the participants faced incarceration during their paramilitary careers, themes also reflected on the impact imprisonment had on them. The themes explored factors that sustained their involvement, including the role of identity development and identity fusion in sustaining their extremism, the impact of insulated group membership, feelings of efficacy, dehumanization processes, community support, and beliefs in the utility of violence.

(From the journal abstract)


Neil Ferguson & James W. McAuley, 2020. Staying engaged in terrorism: narrative accounts of sustaining participation in violent extremism. Frontiers in psychology.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01338

ISIS Propaganda: A Full-Spectrum Extremist Message

This book offers a comprehensive overview and analysis of the Islamic State's use of propaganda.

Combining a range of different theoretical perspectives from across the social sciences, and using rigorous methods, the authors trace the origins of the Islamic State's message, laying bare the strategic logic guiding its evolution, examining each of its multi-media components, and showing how these elements work together to radicalize audiences' worldviews.

This volume highlights the challenges that this sort of "full-spectrum propaganda" raises for counter terrorism forces. It is not only a one-stop resource for any analyst of IS and Salafi-jihadism, but also a rich contribution to the study of text and visual propaganda, radicalization and political violence, and international security.

(From the book abstract)


Stephane J. Baele, Katharine A. Boyd, and Travis G. Coan. 2020. ‘ISIS Propaganda: A Full-Spectrum Extremist Message’. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN: 9780190932459 

Ideological Transmission in Extremist Contexts: Towards a Framework of How Ideas Are Shared

Despite their centrality in academic and policy debates about radicalization and political violence, ideologies have been conceived narrowly, as cognitive, top-down, coherent and systematic.

In general, those who have used the concept of ideology have failed to draw on ideological theory or on recent insights about its practice and embodiment, or location in space and time.

Our interest is less in the content of ideology than in how it is shared by those for whom it matters. We offer an interpretive framework, based on six key questions about ideological transmission: What ideas, beliefs, and values are shared, how and why, by whom, and in which spatial and temporary contexts?

Following a discussion about the methodological pros and cons of the framework, it is tested on a series of interviews with members of Aum Shinrikyo, the Japanese religious group responsible for the Tokyo subway attack in 1995. We assess the strengths and limitations of the framework for analysing the various dimensions of ideological transmission before considering what it adds to our understanding of the relationship between extreme beliefs and violent behaviour.

(From the journal abstract)


Benjamin Lee, Kim Knott. (2022) Fascist aspirants: Fascist Forge and ideological learning in the extreme-right online milieu. Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression 14:3, pages 216-240.

Authors: Kim Knott, Ben Lee
https://doi.org/10.1080/21567689.2020.1732938
Radicalization or Reaction: Understanding Engagement in Violent Extremism in Northern Ireland

Over the last decade various theoretical models of radicalization or pathways into engagement in violent extremism have been developed. However, there is a dearth of primary data based on direct contact with violent extremists to test these models.

In order to address this weakness, we analyzed accounts of engagement in violent extremism produced by former Northern Irish loyalist and republican paramilitaries to explore their understanding of how and why they engaged in this seemingly politically motivated violence.

A thematic analysis incorporating aspects of interpretative phenomenological analysis was employed to gain an understanding of these accounts. While the analysis of the interview transcripts produced findings that share similarities with many of the theoretical models, they challenge the importance of ideological radicalization in fueling initial engagement in violent extremism. Instead, the results demonstrate the importance of collective identity, reaction to events, perceived threats, community grievance, and peer and family influences in fueling initial engagement with the armed groups. Insulation and small‐group pressures within the organizations then amplify identity, threat perceptions, and biases, which increase feelings of efficacy and engagement in violence.

Finally, the findings discuss the role of imprisonment in ideologically radicalizing the participants, which in turn allows the paramilitaries to both sustain and rationalize their violent extremism.

(From the journal abstract)


Neil Ferguson & James W. McAuley, 2019. Radicalization or Reaction: Understanding Engagement in Violent Extremism in Northern Ireland. Political Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12618

Authors: Neil Ferguson, James McAuley
Applying the Study of Religions in the Security Domain: Knowledge, Skills, and Collaboration

Since the 1990s, scholars of religion on both sides of the Atlantic have been drawn into engagement with law enforcement agencies and security policymakers and practitioners, particularly for their expertise on new religious movements and Islam. Whilst enabling researchers to contribute to real-world challenges, this relationship has had its frustrations and difficulties, as well as its benefits and opportunities. Drawing on examples from the UK, Canada, and the US, I set out the relationship between religion and the contemporary security landscape before discussing some of the key issues arising in security research partnerships. I then turn to the question of knowledge exchange and translation in the study of religions, developing the distinction between ‘know what’ (knowledge about religions and being religiously literate), ‘know why’ (explaining religions and making the link to security threats), and ‘know how’ (researcher expertise and skills in engagement with practitioners).

(From the journal abstract)


Kim Knott. 2018. ‘Applying the Study of Religions in the Security Domain: Knowledge, Skills, and Collaboration’. Journal of Religious and Political Practice, 4 (3): 354–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/20566093.2018.1525901.

Author: Kim Knott
The Rise and Fall of the English Defence League: Self-Governance, Marginal Members and the Far Right

What determines the success or failure of far-right organisations? This article uses new qualitative data to explain the sudden rise and subsequent decline of the English Defence League, an anti-Islamic, street protest organisation established in the UK in 2009.

We explain the rise and fall of the English Defence League through the lens of the theory of collective action to show that the English Defence League initially motivated activism by supplying selective incentives that were enhanced by the participation of others.

The pursuit of ‘participatory crowding’ led to indiscriminate recruitment into the organisation that enabled numbers to expand into the thousands, but ultimately caused the English Defence League’s downfall because it resulted in the presence of large numbers of ‘marginal members’ with low levels of commitment whose subsequent exit was decisively destructive.

Self-governance mechanisms to ensure greater loyalty from members could have prevented the English Defence League’s decline but would also have limited its initial success.

(From the journal abstract)


Morrow, Elizabeth A, and John Meadowcroft. 2018. ‘The Rise and Fall of the English Defence League: Self-Governance, Marginal Members and the Far Right’. Political Studies, June. https://doi. org/10.1177/0032321718777907.

Between Caucasus and Caliphate: The Splintering of the North Caucasus Insurgency

In December 2014, several high-ranking field commanders from the Caucasus Emirate (Imarat Kavkaz, IK), an insurgent and designated terrorist group in Russia’s North Caucasus, pledged allegiance to the Islamic State (IS). Following the subsequent defection of many of the IK’s surviving commanders, IS consolidated its regional presence with the establishment of a formal branch, the Caucasus Wilayah (IS/CW).

This paper uses Social Movement Theory’s concept of framing to interpret North Caucasus insurgent leaders’ response to the Syrian conflict and identify the differences in the competing factions’ articulated ideologies. It finds that IS/CW leaders have sought to draw on the emotional appeal of the “caliphate” and redirect it back into the local insurgency, while neglecting to articulate alternative tactics or goals.

Those leaders who remained loyal to the IK, by contrast, rooted their opposition in jihadi scholarship and rejected the legitimacy of the “caliphate”. However, apparent ideological differences have been exacerbated by communication difficulties that have hindered leaders’ ability to negotiate internal and external pressures.

This paper contributes to understandings of the differences between the competing factions, illustrates how groups can seek to strengthen their appeal by avoiding explicitness, and demonstrates the importance of operational context in considering ideological change.

(From the journal abstract)


Youngman, Mark. 2016. ‘Between Caucasus and Caliphate: The Splintering of the North Caucasus Insurgency’. Caucasus Survey 4 (3): 194–217. https://doi.org/10.1080/23761199.2016.1215055.

Broader, Vaguer, Weaker: The Evolving Ideology of the Caucasus Emirate Leadership

In October 2007, veteran Chechen field commander Dokka Umarov proclaimed the formation of the Caucasus Emirate (IK), formalising the victory of the North Caucasus insurgency’s Islamist wing over its nationalist-separatists. During Umarov’s time as leader, the North Caucasus experienced sustained violence and the IK claimed responsibility for multiple terrorist attacks in and beyond the region.

However, despite the importance of ideology in understanding insurgent behaviour, the IK’s ideology and Umarov’s role in shaping it remain understudied. Using Social Movement Theory’s concept of framing to analyse Umarov’s communiqués throughout his lengthy tenure (June 2006–September 2013), this article identifies three distinct phases in Umarov’s ideological positioning of the insurgency: nationalist-jihadist (June 2006–October 2007); Khattabist (October 2007–late 2010); and partially hybridised (late 2010–September 2013).

The article contributes to debates over typologies of jihadist actors by highlighting the difficulties in applying them to the North Caucasus and provides a clearer understanding of the IK’s ideological transformation and the limits to its engagement with external actors.

The article also illustrates that weakness was a key factor in explaining that transformation and identifies several avenues for research that could further enhance our understanding of the IK’s ideology and the role it plays.

(From the journal abstract)


Youngman, Mark. 2016. ‘Broader, Vaguer, Weaker: The Evolving Ideology of the Caucasus Emirate Leadership’. Terrorism and Political Violence 0 (0): 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2016.1229666

Subscribe to the CREST newsletter.

Get the latest news, events and research into security threats delivered directly to your inbox.
Sign up now
Back to top