Effective emergency responding is of vital importance to public life. In the UK, an emergency is defined as “an event or situation that threatens serious damage to human welfare or to the environment in a place in the UK, or war/terrorism which threatens serious damage to the security of the UK” (Civil Contingencies Act, 2004, S1.1). When an emergency goes beyond routine it is declared as a major incident, requiring “the implementation of special arrangements by one or more Category 1 responders” (Cabinet Office, 2012, pg. 10), such as the Police, Ambulance and Fire Services working alongside Local Authorities, the Environment Agency, Marine and Coastguard Agency and NHS trusts, Public Heath England, and Port Health authorities. A major incident requires emergency teams to temporarily combine their expertise to deal with a situation that would otherwise be impossible to manage by a single team, demanding effective collaboration within as well as between teams (Brown et al., 2021; Curnin et al., 2015a). This makes them especially challenging workplace contexts by being non-routine and requiring collaboration between sub-teams who generally work independently of each other (Bharosa et al., 2010).
The structure that is typically used by teams operating in complex and demanding task environments is a multiteam system (MTS): a network of teams, working towards one collective goal (for example, emergency services ‘saving life’) whilst pursuing various interdependent goals (for example, police safely cordoning the area, firefighters extracting victims, paramedics treating and transporting patients to hospital) (Fleştea et al., 2017; Marks et al., 2001; Mathieu et al., 2001). For an MTS to be effective, sub-teams must align their behaviours, combining their, potentially disparate, command structures, cultures and procedures (Brown et al., 2021). In the UK, large scale disasters, such as the Manchester Arena Bombing (2017), London Bridge Attack (2019), and the Grenfell Tower Fire (2017) amongst others, have raised the profile of the necessity of effective multi-team coordination and, sadly, how its attainment can be elusive in practice.
In this paper, we will systematically review the literature on interoperability by considering the UK emergency services, who have spent the past decade trying to improve joint working between the blue light services via a programme of changes in doctrine and training.
In this paper, we will systematically review the literature on interoperability by considering the UK emergency services, who have spent the past decade trying to improve joint working between the blue light services via a programme of changes in doctrine and training. In 2012, the Joint Emergency Services Interoperability Programme (JESIP, 2013, 2016a, 2021) was established to improve joint working between the UK emergency services. This was in response to government-level acknowledgement that the emergency services had not been working well together at major incidents. These failings were highlighted in the Pollock Report (2013), which evaluated 32 major incidents from the 1980s-2000s and identified repeated failures of interoperability. Pollock (2013) defined interoperability as “the extent to which organisations can work together coherently as a matter of course” (p.8) and warned that procedural changes alone were not enough to achieve effective joint working. He argued that, for interoperability to be fully embedded, there needed to be a concerted effort to shape organisational culture, attitudes, values, and beliefs. Simply instructing emergency responders to cooperate better is not enough to achieve the cultural changes required to entrench interoperability within the working practice of responders (Thomas et al., 2010).
The focus of JESIP since its inception has been the development of the Joint Doctrine (2013, 2016a, 2021). This doctrine provides emergency responders with a framework for the actions they should take when working together. For example, ensuring co-location at a scene on arrival, using jargon free language, adopting a shared “joint decision model” to structure collective decision-making and action. It was intended to supplement agency specific response plans and the joint training that emergency services organisations already received. However, since its inception, the challenges associated with interoperability have not abated. Indeed, JESIP’s focus has been limited to the “blue lights services” despite their regular interaction with non-blue light organisations during emergencies (e.g., Environment Agency, Coast Guard). Further, JESIP training has predominantly focused on command-level decision-makers, failing to recognise the important role that operational staff play in a multi-agency response. The Manchester Arena Inquiry (Saunders, 2022), which evaluated the emergency response to the 2017 terrorist attack that resulted in the deaths of 22 innocent victims, heavily criticised JESIP. Saunders, who led the enquiry, argued that JESIP was not embedded into the “muscle memory” of responders, meaning that under stress they abandoned joint principles and operated in silos. This echoes the warnings by Pollock (2013) that, for interoperability to be achieved, it must be rooted within the organisational culture of emergency workers.
Culture is socially constructed around the beliefs, values, and attitudes of an organisation’s members (Jorritsma & Wilderom, 2011) and is essential to informing how an organisation operates. However, to date, culture has not been a focus of JESIP. The consideration of the psychological processes linked to how interoperability can be better embedded into the social fabric of an organisation are just as, if not more, important than the practical arrangements that JESIP has so far prioritised. Despite JESIPs best efforts, lessons identified from previous incidents continue not to be learned or put into practice. Our systematic review will take a first step in developing our understanding of interoperability through a psychological lens. We suggest that conclusions have application to any high reliability organisation where disparate sub-teams must work together in physically, psychologically, and interpersonally demanding contexts (Orasanu & Lieberman, 2011).
Systematic Review Aims
A core problem with the term interoperability is that definitions of it vary or are omitted entirely. JESIP’s own definition (“working together coherently as a matter of routine”) is vague and creates potential for confusion and lack of agreement over what joint working means in practice. To improve interoperability, we must first reconsider what it means. Second, there is no clear evidence base for the principles outlined in JESIP’s joint doctrine. Although common-sense logic suggests principles like co-location might be important for interoperability, there has been no research to investigate these underpinning principles directly. The principles outlined by JESIP are largely structural and have paid little consideration to psychological and group-level processes that would be trained for in different ways (e.g., trust building exercises). This review is essential to developing an understanding on what precisely interoperability is and how we can embed it within organisational culture. Taken together, this systematic review has three goals, to:
- Establish a concrete definition of “interoperability”
- Identify what interoperability looks like with reference to existing structural principles
- Identify how interoperability can be achieved by categorising the important psychological principles that underpin it
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